Evolution of Indian Education- India’s educational landscape underwent a seismic transformation under British rule (1757-1947), evolving from decentralized gurukuls and madrasas into a state-controlled system designed to serve imperial interests. This period – marked by the Anglicist-Orientalist conflict, Macaulay’s radical Anglicization (1835), and Wood’s institutional blueprint (1854) – laid the foundations of modern India’s education while systematically marginalizing indigenous knowledge.
The changes one could see in the Indian education system from the Vedic and the Buddhist period through the Islamic period to the British era had been vivid. The British came to India as traders and set up English-medium schools, through which they taught western science and literature. The Christian missionaries taught colonial education so that the Indians could be used for doing government clerical jobs.
Individual Efforts under Company Rule
The East India Company, a trading and profit-making company, had no interest in promoting education for the first 60 years of its control in India. Individual efforts made a few minor exceptions.
- In 1771, Charles Grant recommended that English education be introduced in India, with English being the official language. This suggestion was rejected due to the opposition faced by the British Raj, who didn’t want to cause more tensions
- In 1781, Warren Hastings founded the Calcutta Madrasah to teach Muslim law and associated subjects
- 1784- The Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir William Jones in 1784, is a renowned institution of learning in India that promotes the study of Asian history, literature, arts, and sciences. It’s considered one of the oldest institutions of learning in Asia, with a focus on research and the preservation of knowledge related to the region
- In 1791, Jonathan Duncan, a resident of Benaras, founded the Sanskrit College to study Hindu law and philosophy
Evolution of Indian Education under the English East India Company
Asiatic Society of Bengal-1784
- The Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir William Jones in 1784.
- It is a renowned institution of learning in India that promotes the study of Asian history, literature, arts, and sciences.
- It’s considered one of the oldest institutions of learning in Asia, with a focus on research and the preservation of knowledge related to the region.
- Warren Hastings believed that Hindus had laws that had not changed for thousands of years. Therefore, if the British wanted to establish their rule in the nation, they had to learn these laws and the Sanskrit language in which they were written.
Charter Act of 1813
A sum of Rs.1 Lakh is to be set aside for promotion of education among natives, and for the revival and improvement of literature.
It triggered the Anglicist-Orientalist Controversy:
- Orientalists: Promote Sanskrit/Arabic education (e.g., H.T. Princep).
- Anglicists: Advocate Western sciences in English (supported by Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Orientalist Camp:-(Advocated promoting Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and indigenous knowledge)
- Warren Hastings, Sir William Jones, Jonathan Duncan, H.H. Wilson & H.T. Prinsep, Sir Alexander Johnston.
Anglicist Camp- Promoted Western education via English medium
- Thomas Babington Macaulay-Authored the Macaulay’s Minute (1835); declared Indian knowledge “inferior”; pushed English as the medium for “useful learning”.
- Charles Trevelyan: Macaulay’s brother-in-law; asserted English would dismantle “idolatrous” Indian religions.
- Charles Grant: Evangelical who viewed English as a tool to eradicate “Hindu fabric of error”.
- Lord William Bentinck:
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy:
Two Major aspects of the controversy
- Content- Western education Vs Indian education
- Language- English or Vernacular
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the demand for Western education
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833), a key figure in India’s Bengal Renaissance, held nuanced views on Orientalist and Western education, driven by his vision for India’s modernization. He said Indians wanted a system of education which could help them to ear their livelihood. His perspectives can be summarized as follows:
Critique of Orientalist Education
- Opposed traditional emphasis: Roy strongly objected to government funding for Sanskrit-centric institutions, arguing they promoted “knowledge already current in India” with “little practical use”. In his 1823 letter to Lord Amherst, he criticized the proposed Sanskrit College in Calcutta, stating it would keep India “in darkness”.
- Rejected ritualistic learning: He viewed traditional pedagogy as reinforcing superstition, caste rigidities, and social stagnation, rather than fostering critical thinking.
Advocacy for Western Education
- Emphasis on practical sciences: Roy championed Western education for its focus on empirical sciences (mathematics, physics, anatomy) and rational inquiry, which he believed were essential for India’s progress.
- English as a medium: He endorsed English-language education to access “treasures of scientific and democratic thought” from the West, seeing it as a tool to modernize Indian society.
- Institutional action: In 1817, he co-founded the Hindu College (later Presidency University) in Calcutta to promote Western sciences and English education, despite opposition from orthodox groups.
Synthesis of Eastern and Western Values
- Roy did not outright reject Indian traditions. Instead, he sought a balanced integration:
- Ethical foundation: He valued the Upanishads’ moral philosophy and Vedanta’s monotheism, advocating their fusion with Western rationalism.
- Cultural bridge: He worked to correct Western misconceptions about Hinduism, emphasizing that “Indian learning and religion” deserved judicious study within modern education. This influenced later policies like Wood’s Despatch (1854), which incorporated vernacular languages and Oriental literature.
Divergence from Colonial Motives
While supporting Western education, Roy disagreed with British objectives:
- The colonial regime aimed to create an elite class for administrative control (“Downward Filtration Theory”), whereas Roy sought education to spur national awakening and social reform (e.g., abolishing sati).
- He believed Western knowledge would empower Indians to challenge regressive practices, not reinforce subjugation.
Conclusion: A Pragmatic Visionary
- Roy’s stance was neither wholly rejectionist nor imitative. He opposed Orientalist education for its impracticality but respected India’s philosophical heritage. His push for Western sciences aimed at liberating Indian minds from dogma while preserving ethical values—a synthesis pivotal to India’s socio-intellectual modernization. This legacy cemented his title as “Father of the Indian Renaissance.”
General Committee of Public Institution-1823
- Origin: The Charter Act of 1813 allocated ₹1 lakh annually for Indian education, but funds remained unused for a decade due to policy paralysis.
- It became India’s first centralized education department, with branches in Bombay and Madras by 1824.
- It has 10 members.
- Within committee there were two groups the Orientalist led by H.T. Princep and the Anglicist.
- Equal divisions in parties in the committee made it extremely difficult for it to function effectively because of frequent stalemates in the meetings.
- As a member of Executive Council, Macaulay wrote his famous minute on educational policy in 1835. It favoured Anglicist viewpoint.
Lord Macaulay’s Minute – 1835
- Lord William Bentick in the resolution of 7th March !835 accepted this viewpoint of Macauley.
- He aimed to create a class of person who should be “Indian in Blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in moral and in intellect.”
- In other words, he sought the production of “Brown Englishmen” to fill the lower cadres in the Company’s administration.
- Macaulayian System was a systematic effort on the part of the British Government to educate the upper class of India through the medium of English Language.
- He put faith in the ‘infiltration theory’. He believed that the English educated would as a ‘class of interpreters’ and in turn enrich vernacular languages and literature and thus the knowledge of Western Sciences and literature would reach the masses.
- Also called as “Downward-Filtration Theory” or “Trickle-down theory.”
Thomasanian Education System 1843-53
- Introduced by James Thomason, Lieutenant-Governor of North-Western Provinces (modern UP).
- Effort was to develop a comprehensive scheme of Village Education through the medium of Vernacular languages.
- The smaller English schools were abolished and English education confined to colleges.
- In Village Schools useful subjects like the mensuration, agricultural science etc were taught in Vernacular languages.
- Aim was to train personnel for employment in the newly set up Revenue and Public Works Department of the province.
Sir Charles Woods Despatch on Education-1854
- President of the Board of Control
- It modified the earlier radical-anglicist approach adopted by Macaulay in his minute related to education.
- It declared that the aim of Governments educational policy was the teaching of Western Education.
- Magna Carta of English Education in India.
Recommendations: –
Hierarchical Education System
- Primary education in Vernacular Language.
- High Schools in anglo-vernacular languages.
- Universities at Presidency level.
Establishment of Universities
- Recommended universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (established in 1857) modeled after London University.
Department of Public Instruction (DPI)
- Created Department of Public Instruction in each province (Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjab, NW Provinces) headed by a Director.
- It was organised in 1855 and it replaced the earlier Committee of Public Instruction and Council of Education.
Grants-in-Aid System
- Provided financial aid to private institutions meeting government standards to expand educational access.
Teacher Training & Vocational Education
- Teacher training institutes in each province for primary/secondary levels.
- Emphasised the importance of vocational instruction and the need for establishing technical schools and colleges.
- Professional colleges for law, engineering, agriculture (e.g., Roorkee Engineering College).
Promotion of Women’s Education
- Explicitly advocated government support for female education (e.g., Bethune School in Calcutta).
Vernacular and English Integration
- Primary: Mother tongue.
- Secondary: Anglo-vernacular (mix of English and local languages).
- Higher: English medium.
Mass Education Expansion
- One government school per district and emphasis on rural access, rejecting the earlier “Downward Filtration Theory”
Weaknesses of Woods Despatch: –
- Purpose was not the Upliftment of Indians. But it was meant to serve the cause of British Imperialism & Colonialism.
- Nature of Syllabus was mainly designed to eulogise the empire.
- Type of Education- mainly Humanities, lacked vocational or technical education. It lacked job orientation.
- Rural & Backward remote areas were neglected.
- Lack of Inclusivity- Only the rich and elite to go for higher studies. Further there was no concreteness in Female Education.
- Laid groundwork for modern Indian education but prioritized colonial interests over equitable access.
Evolution of Indian Education under the Royal Crown of British
The Hunter Commission (1882-83)
- Under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter to review the progress of education in the Country since the Despatch of 1854.
- Another reason for the appointment of the Commission was the propaganda carried on by the missionaries in England that the education system of India was not carried on in accordance with the policy laid down in Woods Despatch.
- Principal object of the enquiry of the Commission was to see the present state of Elementary education throughout the Indian Empire.
- Commission was not to enquire into the general working of the Indian Universities.
- Thus, mostly recommendations were confined to secondary and primary education.
Recommendations-
- The Commission recommended the transference of the control of primary education to the newly set up District and Municipal Boards. The local boards were empowered to levy cess for educational purposes.
- The Secondary education, there should be two divisions–
- one, a literary education leading to the entrance examination of the university and
- the other of a practical character preparing students for commercial and vocational careers.
- The Commission recommended that an all-out effort should be made to encourage private enterprise in the field of education. To achieve that objective, it recommended the extension and liberalization of the grants-in-aid system.
- It recommended that the Government should withdraw, as early as possible from the direct management of secondary and collegiate education.
- It drew attention to the inadequate facilities for female education outside the Presidency towns and made recommendation for its spread.
The Indian Universities Act-1904
- 1901- Curzon summoned the highest educational officers of the Government throughout India and representatives of universities at a round table conference at Shimla.
- 1902- a commission was set up under the presidency of Sir Thomas Raleigh to enquire into the condition and prospects of universities in India and to recommend proposals for improving their constitution and working.
- Curzon sanctioned in 1902 of a grant of Rs 5 lakhs per annum for the improvement of higher education and universities.
- Mr G.K. Gokhale described the bill ‘a retrograde measure’.
Recommendations-
- The act laid down that the number of Fellows of a university shall not be less than fifty nor more than hundred. (50-100)
- A Fellow should normally hold office for a period of six years instead of for life.
- Most of the fellows of a university were to be nominatedby the government. The elective element at-
- 20– for university of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.
- 15- for other universities.
- it vested the government with powers to veto the regulations passed by the Senate of a university.
- The Government could also make additions or alterations in the regulations framed by the senate and even frame regulations itself.
- Increased university control over private colleges by laying down stricter conditions of affiliation and periodical inspection by the Syndicate.
- The Government approval was necessary for grant of affiliation or disaffiliation of colleges.
- The Governor-General-in-council was empowered to define the territorial limit of a university or decide the affiliation of colleges to universities.
Government Resolution on Education Policy -1913
- In 1906 the State of Baroda introduced compulsory primary education throughout its territories.
- 1910-13, G. K. Gokhale made heroic efforts in the Legislative Council urging the government to accept the responsibility for compulsory primary education.
Recommendations: –
- 1913 Resolution, the Government of India refused to recognise the principle of compulsory education, but accepted the policy of the removal of illiteracy.
- it urged the provincial governments to take early steps to provide free elementary instruction to the poorer and more backward sections of the population.
- Private effort in this direction was to be encouraged.
- Regarding Secondary education, the resolution declared the need for improvement of quality of schools.
- A university should be established in every province.
The Sadler University Commission- 1917-19
- was setup to study and report on the problems of Calcutta University.
- He was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds.
- The Commission included two Indian Members-
- Sir Asutosh Mukerji
- Dr Zia-ud-din-Ahmad.
- Commission reviewed the entire field from school education to university education.
- He was of the view that the improvement of secondary education was a necessary condition for the improvement of university education.
Recommendations-
- School Courseà 12 Years
- Centralised residential teaching universities encouraged
- Separate board of secondary and intermediate education.
- Special board of Women education in Calcutta University.
- The university was desired to provide courses on Applied scientific and technological education.
- Also recommended setting up of new universities.
Seven new universities came into existence during 1916-21, namely Mysore, Patna, Banaras, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, and Osmania.
The Hartog Committee-1929
- Increase in number of schools and colleges had led to deterioration of education standards.
- Emphasis on primary education but no hasty expansion or compulsion in education.
- Only deserving students should go in for high school and intermediate stage.
- while average students should be diverted to vocational education.
- For improvements in standards of university education admission should be restricted.
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education – 1937
- After introduction of provincial autonomy under 1935 act, the congress party came into power in 7 provinces.
- Set up by provincial governments of Congress under Zakir Husssain.
- Principle behind the scheme was ‘learning through activity’.
- In 1937 Gandhiji published series of articles in his paper The Harijan newspaper.
- Inclusion of basic handicraft in the syllabus.
- The Scheme centre round ‘manual productive work’ which might cover the remuneration of teachers.
- First seven years of schooling free and compulsory (through mother tongue)
- Teaching to be in hindi from class II to VII and English only after class VIII.
- Ways to devise to established contact with community.
- The outbreak of the war in 1939 and resignation of congress ministries led to the postponement of the scheme.
Seargeant Plan of Education-1944
- The Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a national scheme of education, generally known as the Seargeant Plan ( Sir John Sargeant was the Educational Advisor to the Government of India).
Recommendations-
- Pre-primary education for 3-6 years age group.
- Envisaged free and compulsory education between six and eleven years of age.
- 11-17 years age group– high school education
- University education for 3 years.
- Adequate technical, commercial and arts education.
- Abolition of intermediate course.
- Liquidation of adult literacy in 20 years.
- Education for the physically and mentally handicapped
- Objective- within 40 years same level of education as prevailed in England.
Radhakrishnan Commission (1948-49)
- There should be 12 years of pre-university educational course.
- Higher education should have three main objectives
- Central education
- Liberal education
- Occupational education
- A university degree should not be considered essential for administrative services.
- Rural universities like shantiniketan and jamia milia as their models to be established
- Colleges should not be overcrowded. Max 1000 students in each college.
- The Working days at eh university should not be less than 180 in the year exclusive of examination days. Working days should be divided in three terms each of 11 week’s duration.
- University education should be in concurrent list
- A University Grants Commission should be set up to look after university education in the country. (Set up in 1953, and given statutory status in 1956)
Evolution of Indian Education– Table
| Education Reformer / Policy | Features / Recommendations |
| 1771 Charles Grant | Grant recommended that English education to be introduced in India, with English being the official language. This suggestion was rejected due to the opposition faced by the British Raj, who didn’t want to cause more tensions |
| 1781 Warren Hastings | founded the Calcutta Madrasah to study Muslim law and associated subjects |
| 1784 Sir William Jones | The Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir William Jones in 1784. |
| 1791 Jonathan Duncan | A resident of Benaras, founded the Sanskrit College to study Hindu law and philosophy. |
| Charter Act of 1813 | A sum of Rs.1 Lakh is to be set aside for promotion of education among natives, and for the revival and improvement of literature. |
| General Committee of Public Institution (1823) | India’s first centralized education department, with branches in Bombay and Madras by 1824. |
| Lord Macaulay’s Minute – 1835 | Macaulayian System was a systematic effort on the part of the British Government to educate the upper class of India through the medium of English Language. |
| Thomasanian Education System 1843-53 | Effort was to develop a comprehensive scheme of Village Education through the medium of Vernacular languages. |
| Woods Despatch-1854 | Magna Carta of English Education in India. |
| The Hunter Commission-1882 | mostly recommendations were confined to secondary and primary education. |
| The Universities Act-1904 | Centralizing in nature, as it increased government control over Indian universities. |
| Government Resolution on Education Policy -1913 | the Government of India refused to recognise the principle of compulsory education, but accepted the policy of the removal of illiteracy. |
| The Sadler University Commission- 1917-19 | was setup to study and report on the problems of Calcutta University. |
| Hartog Committee-1929 | Emphasis on primary education but no hasty expansion or compulsion in education |
| Wardha Scheme of Basic Education-1937 | Principle behind the scheme was ‘learning through activity’. |
| Seargeant Plan of Education-1944 | Free and compulsory education between six and eleven years of age. |
| Radhakrishnan Commission (1948-49) | A university degree should not be considered essential for administrative services. |
Evolution of Indian Education (Technical Education)
- Roorkee’s Engineering College was founded in 1847
- In 1856, the Calcutta College of Engineering was established
- In 1858, the Poona Overseers’ School was elevated to the status of Poona College of Engineering and became affiliated with Bombay University
- Madras University was connected with Guindy College of Engineering
- Medical education began in 1835 when a medical college was established in Calcutta, by Lord William Bentinck.
- Lord Curzon made significant contributions to broadening the scope of professional courses such as medicine, agriculture, engineering, and veterinary science. He founded an agriculture college in Pusa that served as a model for similar colleges in other regions
Impact of British Education System in India: –
Positive Impacts
- Modern Institutions: Established universities (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras – 1857), technical colleges (Roorkee Engineering College – 1847), and standardized examinations.
- Western Sciences & Rationalism: Introduced modern subjects (math, science, law) fostering critical thinking and challenging orthodox traditions.
- Nationalist Awakening: English education unified Indians, creating leaders like Tilak, Gandhi, Nehru who spearheaded the freedom struggle.
- Administrative Framework: Systematized education via Wood’s Despatch (1854), creating Departments of Public Instruction and grants-in-aid systems.
Negative Impacts
- Elitist & Exclusionary: Downward Filtration Theory failed: Only 16% literacy by 1947; masses (especially rural, lower castes) excluded.
- Cultural Erosion: Marginalized Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian; devalued indigenous knowledge (Ayurveda, astronomy).
- “Macaulay’s Children”: Created an elite class “Indian in blood, English in taste” – culturally alienated from local realities.
- Employment-Oriented: Focused on producing clerks & bureaucrats (e.g., for railways, courts) rather than holistic development.
Contradictory Legacy–
| Domain | Progress | Setback |
| Language | English as link language | Vernacular decline; linguistic hierarchy |
| Access | Urban institutions flourished | Rural neglect; caste/gender gaps widened |
| Curriculum | Modern sciences introduced | Eurocentric content; disconnect from Indian context |
| Economy | Created white-collar jobs | Reinforced colonial dependency |
Long-Term Consequences
- Post-1947 Challenges:
- Inherited urban-centric, exam-oriented system needing mass literacy drives (e.g., SSA 2001).
- Persistent English vs. Vernacular divide addressed in NEP 2020.
- Cultural Renaissance: Ironically, Western education spurred revival movements (e.g., Arya Samaj, Dayanand Saraswati)
Insight: The British system was a double-edged sword – it laid institutional foundations but entrenched inequality. Modern debates (medium of instruction, vocational vs. academic streams) stem directly from colonial policies. Quote for answers:
“It gave us railways but divided souls; universities but illiterate masses; freedom fighters but cultural confusion.”
Further Reference: Link colonial impacts to post-independence reforms (Kothari Commission 1966, NEP 2020) for essay questions.
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