Buddhism – A Complete Guide for UPSC: History, Teachings, Sects, and Art

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• Buddhism, an anciеnt and profound spiritual tradition, еmеrgеd in thе Indian subcontinеnt around the 6th century BCE., mainly due to rеligious dissatisfaction causеd by complеx rituals and class dominancе during the Vedic period in India.
• It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama and prospered due to his simple and practical techniques as well as his emphasis on equality.
• Buddhism is considered by many as a moral code or a philosophy rather than an established religion due to its non-theistic faith without a god or deity to be worshipped.
• The essence of Budha’s teaching, which was based on the philosophy of non-self, provides insights into suffering as well as its allеviation through Four Noblе Truths and Eightfold Paths, respectively. 
• Concеpts likе karma, thе Middlе Path, and nirvana undеrlinе its philosophy.

Causes Religious Movements (600BC-400BC)

• Vedic Philosophy has lost its original purity.
• Corruption and Exploitation in Religion– The Vedic religion has become very complex and had degenerated into superstitions, dogmas and rituals.
• Dominance of Brahmanical Supremacy– Supremacy of the Brahmans has created unrest in the society and kshatriyas reacted the Brahminical domination.
• Economic Changes and Rise of New Social Classes– Desire of Vaishyas to improve their social position with the increase in their economic position due to growth in trade.
• Influence of Upanishadic Ideas- The Upanishads had already begun shifting focus from ritualism to inner realization.
• Philosophical and Intellectual Awakening
  • The 6th century BCE is considered a period of intellectual ferment or “Second Urbanisation“.
  • Philosophical debates on life, death, rebirth, and moksha became popular.
  • People wanted a more rational and practical path to salvation.

Factors that led to the Rise of Buddhism in India

• Complex religious practices of the Vedic era.
• Brahminical domination and its opposition.
• Nature and Philosophy of Buddhism:
  • Doctrine of Equality: Buddhism’s emphasis on equality appealed to the masses, providing an escape from the stratified Varna system.
  • Simple Language: Buddha’s teachings were communicated in Pali, a language understood by common people. This accessibility facilitated its rapid spread.
  • Simple Doctrine: Buddhism’s practical moralities, including the Middle Path, resonated with people seeking guidance in their lives. This approach offered a comparatively easier route to spiritual liberation compared to the intricate Vedic religion.
• Economic factors:
  • Urbanisation and the growth of non-violence as a value contributed to Buddhism’s acceptance. 
  • The rising Vaishya class found Buddhism’s emphasis on ethics and non-violence compatible with their aspirations.

• Geographical factors:
  • Buddhism’s еmеrgеncе in Magadha and Eastеrn Uttar Pradеsh was influenced by their intеllеctual ambiancе, fеrtilе plains, and stratеgic towns.
  • Sitеs likе Sarnath and Bodh Gaya еnrichеd spirituality.
  • Monasteries and patronagе encouraged dеbatеs.
  • Trade intеrsеctions and prior traditions aided idеa dissеmination, shaping Buddhism’s growth.

• Patronage:
  • Buddha’s personal appeal and teachings inspired commitment from rulers like Bimbisara.
  • Ajatashatru, and Ashoka, which aided the rise and rapid expansion of Buddhism across India and even outside.

Life of Buddha

• Place of birth: As per an inscribed Ashokan pillar, Siddhartha was born in the Lumbini grove (modern Rummindei) in the Nepal Terai region.
• Parents: His father was Suddhodana, the chief of the Sakya clan, and his mother was Maya, a princess of the Koliya clan.
• Period: The date of the birth of the Buddha is a matter of dispute, but most scholars place it about 566 BCE.

Gautama’s Early Life

The early life of Gautama was spent with ease and royal splendour, but it failed to attract the mind of Gautama.

• Four Encounters that Changed Gautama’s Life: As tradition describes it, he was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick person, a dead body and an ascetic.
• Leaving Home in Search of Enlightenment (Mahabhinishkramana): The misery of human life cast a deep spell on Gautama. In order to find a solution to the misery of mankind, he left home at the age of 29.
• Gautama spent six years as a wandering ascetic.
• From a sage named Alara Kalama, he learnt the technique of meditation and the teachings of the Upanishads.
• Since these teachings did not lead Gautama to final liberation, he left him along with five Brahmana ascetics.

Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree (Nirvana)

• Ultimately, Buddha went to Uruvela (near modern Bodh Gaya on the banks of the Niranjana River) and sat under a pipal tree (Bodhi tree).
• Here, he attained nirvana – the Supreme Knowledge (Enlightenment) on the 49th day of his continuous meditation. Since then, he has been called the Buddha (the Enlightened One).
• First Sermon: From here, he proceeded to the Deer Park at Sarnath near Varanasi and gave his first sermon, which is known as “Dharmachakra Pravartana” (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma).
• First disciples: Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sari-putra and Ananda were the first five disciples of the Buddha.
• Early Patronage: Kings like Bimbisara and Ajatasatru (Magadha), Prasenajit (Kosala), and Udayana (Kausambi) accepted his doctrines and became his disciples.

Major events and places associated with Buddha’s Life and Teachings

Symbols	Associated with	Places
Lotus and Bull	Birth- The Buddha was born.	Lumbini
Horse	Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation)- Buddha left his palace and renounced his luxurious life in order to seek spiritual enlightenment.	Kapilavastu
Bodhi tree	Nirvana/Sambodini (Enlightenment)- After several years of spiritual practice, the Buddha achieved enlightenment, or Nirvana, under a Bodhi tree	Bodh Gaya
Wheel	Dharmachakra Pravartana (First Sermon)- The Buddha’s first sermon was delivered to a group of five ascetics in the Deer Park	Sarnath
Stupa	Mahaparinirvana (Moksha)- Buddha died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, the capital of the Mallas (Mahajanapada).	Kushinagar

Four Noble Truths of Buddhism (Chatwari Arya Satyani)

Sabbam Dukkam	The world is full of suffering.
Dwadash Nidan/ Samudaya	Desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of suffering.
Nirvana/Nirodha	The suffering could be removed by destroying its cause
Magga/Ashtangika Marga	To end suffering, one must know the right path- i.e. Eight-Fold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga) in Buddhism

• Buddha in his teachings recommended an eight-fold path for the elimination of human misery.
• If a person follows this eightfold path, he will not depend on the intrigue of the priests, and yet he will be able to reach his destination.
• Grouped into three categories:
  • Wisdom (Prajna): Right View, Right Intention
  • Ethical Conduct (Sila): Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood
  • Mental Discipline (Samadhi): Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration

Right view	Right Speech	Right livelihood	Right mindfulness
Right aim	Right action	Right effort	Right concentration

Buddhist Ideas and Philosophy

Middle path:  An individual should pursue the middle path, and both severe asceticisms, as well as a luxurious life, are to be avoided.

The Idea of Karma and Rebirth:

• Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of ‘karma’.
• According to this law, the present is determined by past actions.
• As per this philosophy, “We are born again and again to reap the fruits of our ‘karma’. If an individual has no sins, he is not born again.”

Existence of god:

• The Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. He was more concerned about the individual and his actions.

Existence of soul:

• He did not involve himself in fruitless controversy regarding the soul (atman) and Brahma, which raged strongly in his time.
• Instead, Buddha emphasised the spirit of love. Love could be expressed towards all living beings by following ‘ahimsa’ (non-killing).

Nirvana:

• The Buddha preached ‘nirvana’, the ultimate goal in the life of a man.
• It means the shedding of all desires and ending of suffering, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain ‘nirvana’.
• Unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in the Vedic religion, he laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual.

Non-Self (Anatta):

• Buddhism sees the self not as permanent but as constantly changing five aggregates (skandhas) – body, sensations, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness.
• Clinging to these aggregates as unchanging causes suffering (dukkha). 
• Realising their impermanent nature frees one from mistaken notions of a fixed self.

Origin of the world:

• The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. 
• Therefore, he advised kings and Gahapatis to be humane and ethical. The individual effort was expected to transform social relations.

On Moksha: 

• The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana, literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire – and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world.

Dhamma:

• In Buddhism, Dhamma refers to the teachings of Buddha, the universal truths or ultimate reality revealed by him and the path one must follow to attain enlightenment.

Three Jewels of Buddhism:

• Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha constitute the three jewels or refuges. Taking refuge in them is the formal process of becoming a Buddhist by accepting Buddha as the teacher, Dhamma as the teaching and Sangha as the community.
• According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.

Buddhahood and Cycle of Buddhas

• In Buddhism, there is a belief in thе cycle of Buddhas, which refers to thе idea that thеrе havе bееn and there will be many enlightened bеings or Buddhas throughout thе agеs.
• Krakucchanda was believed to bе thе first Buddha of thе currеnt cosmic agе known as Bhadrakalpa. His tеachings еmphasizеd moral conduct, mеditation and spiritual powеrs.
• Kankamuni was thе second Buddha of Bhadrakalpa, born into a Brahmin family. His tеachings focused on cultivating compassion and meditation.
• Kasyapa was the third Buddha, who strеssеd еthical conduct and wisdom.
• Sakyamuni, also known as Gautama Buddha, was the fourth and most rеnownеd Buddha of Bhadrakalpa. His tеachings formеd thе basis of Buddhism, cеntеring around thе Four Noblе Truths and Noblе Eightfold Path as thе way to еnlightеnmеnt.
• Maitrеya is a bodhisattva considеrеd to bе thе futurе Buddha of the next cosmic agе. Believed to reside in Tusita hеavеn, he will be reborn on Earth and achieve еnlightеnmеnt whеn Sakyamuni Buddha’s tеachings arе forgottеn.
• The concеpt of multiple Buddhas across timе convеys the cyclical and еtеrnаl nature of еnlightеnmеnt in Buddhism. Sakyamuni Buddha is thе kеy figurе in our currеnt еra.

What are Jatakas?

• The Jataka Tales are a collection of stories about the previous births of Gautama Buddha, in both human and animal forms.
• These stories illustrate the moral values and virtues like compassion, generosity, truthfulness, and sacrifice that the Buddha practiced over many lifetimes.
• Key Points:
  • Written in Pali Language.
• • Found in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka (part of the Tripitaka).
• • There are over 550 stories in the Jataka collection.
• • Used as didactic literature—for ethical teaching.
• • Popular medium for Buddhist art, especially in stupa reliefs (e.g., Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati).
  • Stories include famous episodes like the Golden Deer, The Monkey King, and The Great Ape Jataka.

Who are Bodhisattvas?

• A Bodhisattva is a being who has attained enlightenment (Bodhi) but chooses to remain in the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara) to help all sentient beings achieve liberation (nirvana).
• The concept is central to Mahayana Buddhism.
• Key Points:
  • Bodhisattvas embody selfless compassion (Karuna) and postpone their own nirvana for the sake of others.
  • They are ideal spiritual heroes in Mahayana tradition.
  • In Theravada Buddhism, the term is mainly used for Buddha in his previous births.
  • Many Bodhisattvas became deified and worshipped in Buddhist temples.

Important Bodhisattvas-

Name	Symbolism
Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani)	Compassion; often depicted with multiple arms/heads
Manjushri	Wisdom; holds a sword and a book
Maitreya	The future Buddha
Vajrapani	Power and protection
Tara	Female Bodhisattva; compassion and healing

Buddhism – Reasons for Decline

From the early 12th century, Buddhism began to disappear from the land of its birth. Various causes that led to the decline of Buddhism are:

• Corruption in Buddhist Sangha– In the course of time, the Buddhist Sangha became corrupt. Receiving valuable gifts drew them towards luxury and enjoyment. The principles prescribed by Buddha were conveniently forgotten and thus started the degradation of the Buddhist monks and their preachings.
• Division among Buddhists– Buddhism faced divisions from time to time. The division into various splinter groups like Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana, Tantrayana and Sahajayana led Buddhism to lose its originality. The simplicity of Buddhism was lost and it was becoming complex.
• Use of Sanskrit language– Pali, the spoken language of most people of India, was the medium for the spread of the message of Buddhism. But Sanskrit replaced these at the Fourth Buddhist Council during the reign of Kanishka. Sanskrit was the language of a few intellectuals, hardly understood by masses and therefore became one of the many reasons for the fall of Buddhism
• Buddha worship– Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana Buddhists. They started worshipping the image of the Buddha. This mode of worship was a violation of the Buddhist principles of opposing complex rites and rituals of Brahmanical worship. This paradox led people to believe that Buddhism was tending towards the fold of Hinduism.
• Persecution of Buddhists– In course of time there was the rise of the Brahmanical faith again. Some Brahmana rulers, such as Pushiyamitra Shunga, the Huna king, Mihirakula (worshiper of Shiva) and Shaivite Shashank of Gauda persecuted the Buddhists on a large scale. The liberal donations to the monasteries gradually declined. Also, some rich monasteries were specifically targeted by the Turkish and other invaders.
• Muslim invasion– The Muslim invasion of India almost wiped out Buddhism. Their invasions of India became regular, and repeated such invasions forced the Buddhist monks to seek asylum and shelter in Nepal and Tibet. In the end, Buddhism died away in India, the land of its birth.

Buddhist Councils-

Buddhist Council	Time	Place	Ruler	President	Specificity
First	483 BCE	Rajgriha	Ajatashatru	Mahakassappa	Buddha’s teachings were divided into 3 categories or baskets (Pitakas)
Second	383 BCE	Vaishali	Kalasoka	Sabbakami	Division: Sthaviravadins – they felt they were keeping the original spirit of the Buddha’s teachings. Mahasanghikas (The Great Community) – Interpreted Buddha’s teachings more liberally.
Third	250 BCE	Pataliputra	Ashoka	Mogaliputta Tissa	Main aim was to purify the Buddhist movement from opportunistic factions. Abhidhamma Pitaka added; Theravada Buddhism codified Sent Buddhist missionaries to other countries. Tripitaka complete.
Fourth	1stCentury CE	Kashmir	Kanishka	Vasumitra	Buddhism divided into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Important Buddhist Writers

• Asvaghosha – Author of the ‘Buddhacharita’ (Acts of the Buddha) in Sanskrit. Contemporary of Kanishka. He was a scholar, poet, dramatist, musician and debater.
• Nagarjuna – He is the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism. 
• Asanga & Vasubandhu (brothers) – Vasubandhu’s greatest work, Abhidharmakosa, is known as an Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Asanga was an important teacher of Yogachara or Vijnanavada school founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha. Both the brothers spread Buddhism in Punjab in the fourth century CE.
• Buddhaghosa – the Visuddhimagga- the path of purification, a comprehensive summary and analysis of the Theravada understanding of the Buddha’s path to liberation, is considered to be his best work. He was a great Pali scholar.
• Dinnaga – He is known as the founder of the Buddhist logic, the last intellectual of the fifth century.
• Dharmakirti -He lived in the seventh century AD, and was a great Buddhist logician, a philosophical thinker and dialectician.

Important Women Associated with Buddhism

Mahapajapati Gotami

• Foster mother and maternal aunt of Gautama Buddha.
• First woman to request ordination from the Buddha.
• Became the first Bhikkhuni (female monk).
• Instrumental in establishing the Bhikkhuni Sangha (order of nuns).

Kisa Gotami

• Early female disciple of Buddha.
• Famous for her story of grief and realization when she sought mustard seeds to bring her dead son back to life.
• Symbol of Buddhist teaching on impermanence (Anicca).

Therigatha Poets (Elder Nuns)

The Therigatha, a canonical text in Pali, contains poems by early Buddhist nuns expressing spiritual awakening. These early Buddhist nuns composed verses of enlightenment, personal struggle, and liberation. Key figures:

• Ambapali – Courtesan-turned-nun, known for her poetic verses and social reform.
• Soma – Known for rebutting Mara and asserting female spiritual capability.
• Patacara – Expressed deep emotional suffering and the healing power of Dhamma.
• Subha (of Jivaka’s Mango Grove) – Focused on beauty, distraction, and spiritual insight.
• Mutta – Spoke about breaking both worldly and mental slavery.
• Vajira – Philosophical insights on the non-existence of self.
• Dhammadinna – Renowned for her philosophical clarity and respected by even the Buddha.

Themes: detachment, enlightenment, renunciation, and spiritual struggle.

Queen Mallika

• Wife of King Pasenadi of Kosala.
• Known for her intellectual and philosophical conversations with the Buddha.
• Represented the role of women in Buddhist discourse.

Amrapali (Ambapali)

• A celebrated courtesan of Vaishali, later a follower of Buddha.
• Donated her mango grove (Ambapali Vana) to the Buddhist Sangha.
• Mentioned in Therigatha for her renunciation and poetic reflections.

Dhammadinna

• A famous female arhat and teacher during Buddha’s time.
• Highly regarded for her philosophical knowledge and debate skills (especially in the Cūḷavedalla Sutta).
• Held in the same regard as male monks by the Sangha.

Schools of Buddhism–

Hinayana (Theravada) 

• It literally means “The Lesser path” and Theravada signifies “Doctrine of the Elders”.
• Hinayana is true to the teachings of The Buddha.
• Theravada was the original school of Buddhist philosophy.
• Its scriptures are in Pali.
• Doesn’t believe in idol worship.
• Believes an individual can attain salvation through self-discipline & meditation.
• At present, it is found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and other parts of South-East Asia.
• Ashoka patronised Hinayana

Mahayana

• It literally means “The Greater Path”.
• The terms Hinayana & Mahayana were given by the Mahayana school.
• Mahayana has two main philosophical schools – the Madhyamika & Yogachara.
• Its scriptures are in Sanskrit.
• This school of Buddhism considers Buddha as God and worships idols of Buddhas & Bodhisattvas.
• It believes in universal liberation from sufferings for all beings, and spiritual upliftment.
• Salvation can also be attained by means of faith and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha. It believes in mantras.

Vajrayana

• It literally means “Vehicle of Thunderbolt”.
• The Vajrayana or “Diamond Vehicle” is also called Mantrayana, Tantrayana or Esoteric Buddhism.
• It was established in Tibet in the 11th century.
• The “Two Truth Doctrine” is the central concept of Vajrayana. The two truths are identified as ‘conventional’ & ‘ultimate’ truths. Conventional truth is the truth of consensus, reality and common sense notions of what does exist and does not exist. Ultimate truth is the reality as perceived by an enlightened mind.
• Vajrayana texts use a highly symbolic language “sandhya-bhasa” or “twilight language”. It aims to evoke experiences considered to be most valuable, in their followers. 
• Vajrayana believes that salvation can be attained by acquiring magical powers called vajra.
• It also lays importance on the role of Boddhisatva’s but favours fierce deities known as Taras.
• Much importance is given to the role of the guru called Lama who has mastered the philosophical and ritual traditions. There is a long lineage of lamas. The Dalai Lama is a well-known Tibetan Lama.
• It is predominant in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Mongolia. 

Classification of Buddhist Literature

Buddhist literature is broadly classified into:

• Canonical (Tripitaka)
• Non-Canonical Texts
• Commentaries and Historical Works
• Sanskrit Buddhist Literature
• Later Mahayana & Vajrayana Texts

Canonical Literature – The Tripitaka (Three Baskets)

Written originally in Pali language (Theravada tradition) and later translated into Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan.

• Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline)
  1. Deals with rules and regulations for monks and nuns in the Sangha.
  1. Covers code of conduct, punishments, and monastic traditions.
  1. Important for understanding the organization of Buddhist monastic life.

• Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses)
  • Most important and widely used in Buddhist teachings.
  • Contains discourses (suttas) attributed to the Buddha and some of his close disciples.
  • Divided into five Nikayas:
    • Digha Nikaya – Long discourses (e.g., Mahaparinibbana Sutta)
      • Majjhima Nikaya – Medium-length discourses
      • Samyutta Nikaya – Grouped discourses by theme
      • Anguttara Nikaya – Gradual sayings, grouped numerically
      • Khuddaka Nikaya – Miscellaneous texts including Dhammapada, Jataka tales, Sutta Nipata

• Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Doctrine)
  • Philosophical and psychological analysis of Buddhist teachings.
  • Deals with metaphysics, consciousness, mental processes.
  • Later addition; reflects scholastic development of Buddhism.

Important Texts in Khuddaka Nikaya

Dhammapada

• A collection of Buddha’s moral sayings and verses.
• Most popular and quoted Buddhist text.
• Highlights virtues like non-violence, truthfulness, detachment.

Jataka Tales

• Stories of Buddha’s previous births as Bodhisattva.
• Teach moral values through animal and human characters.
• Rich source of folk tales and moral instruction; reflected in Ajanta paintings.

Sutta Nipata

• Contains early poetic verses of Buddhist teachings.
• Emphasizes simplicity, asceticism, and compassion.

Theragatha & Therigatha

• Verses composed by elder monks and nuns (Theras and Theris).
• Reflect inner spiritual journey and experiences of early disciples.

Non-Canonical Literature (Later Pali Texts)

These were written after the Canon was closed:

Milindapanha (“Questions of Milinda”):

• Dialogue between Indo-Greek king Menander (Milinda) and monk Nagasena.
• Clarifies complex Buddhist concepts using analogies.
• The Milindapañhā is regarded as canonical in Burmese Buddhism.
• The Milindapañha is not regarded as canonical by Thai or Sri Lankan Buddhism.
• The Indo-Greek king Menander, also known as Milinda, was converted to Buddhism by the Buddhist monk and philosopher Nagasena after a series of philosophical discussions recorded in the text Milinda-panha

Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa:

• Detailed manual of meditation and ethics in Theravada Buddhism.
• Considered the greatest work of Theravada philosophy.

Sanskrit Buddhist Literature (Mahayana Tradition)

Lalitavistara

• A biographical text describing the life of Buddha.
• Emphasizes divine elements (a Mahayana feature).
• Uses rich Sanskrit; a major source for art and iconography.

Buddhacharita by Ashvaghosha

• An epic poem in Sanskrit on Buddha’s life.
• Written in classical kavya style.
• Ashvaghosha is considered the first Sanskrit dramatist.

Mahavastu

• Sacred biography with a mix of myth, miracle, and history.
• Belongs to Lokottaravada school of Mahasanghikas.

Mahayana Texts

Written in Sanskrit, translated into Tibetan and Chinese.

Prajnaparamita Sutras (“Perfection of Wisdom”)

• Core of Mahayana philosophy.
• Teaches shunyata (emptiness) and non-duality.
• Influenced Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka philosophy.

Saddharma Pundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra)

• Emphasizes universal salvation and Buddha-nature in all beings.
• Introduces the concept of eternal Buddha.
• Highly revered in East Asian Buddhism.

Lankavatara Sutra

• Discusses consciousness-only doctrine.
• Influenced Yogachara school and Zen Buddhism.

Vajrayana/Tantric Buddhist Literature

• Developed in India and Tibet.
• Includes Tantras, mantras, ritual manuals.
• Focus on esoteric practices, visualizations, and deity yoga.
• Examples: Guhyasamaja Tantra, Hevajra Tantra

Buddhist Text Preservation

• Pali Canon preserved in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
• Sanskrit manuscripts mostly lost in India; preserved in Nepal and Tibet.
• Large collections translated into Chinese (Tripitaka Koreana) and Tibetan (Kangyur and Tengyur).

Significance of Buddhist Literature in Indian History

• Source for early Indian philosophy, ethics, and society.
• Reflects linguistic diversity (Pali, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tibetan).
• Invaluable for reconstructing ancient history, monastic life, and social reform movements.
• Inspired art, architecture, folklore, and ethical values.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE AND ART – A Complete Guide

• Buddhist architecture and art evolved alongside the spread of Buddhism from the 6th century BCE onwards.It reflects spiritual values, symbolism, ritual needs, and local influences.
• Broadly classified into:
  • Stupas
  • Viharas (Monasteries)
  • Chaityas (Prayer Halls)
  • Sculpture and Painting

Phases of Buddhist Art & Architecture

a) Hinayana Phase (Early Buddhism)

• Time: 3rd century BCE to 1st century CE
• Buddha represented symbolically (not in human form): Bodhi Tree, Empty Throne, Dharma Chakra, Footprints
• Focus on simplicity, austerity, and non-idolatry

b) Mahayana Phase

• Time: 1st century CE onwards
• Buddha depicted in anthropomorphic form (human-like images)
• Flourishing of large-scale art, narrative reliefs, and sculptural traditions

c) Vajrayana Phase

• Time: 7th–12th century CE
• Introduced tantric elements, mandalas, and ritual symbolism
• Popular in Tibet, Nepal, and Himalayan regions

Main Architectural Features

Stupas (Mound-Like Monuments)- Symbolize the Buddha’s parinirvana (final liberation)

Structure:

• Anda (dome)
• Harmika (square railing above dome)
• Chhatri (umbrella-like structure)
• Vedika (railing)
• Toranas (gateways at cardinal directions)

Famous Stupas:

• Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) – built by Ashoka, expanded later
• Amaravati Stupa (Andhra Pradesh) – fine narrative reliefs
• Bharhut Stupa (MP) – early example, symbolic representation
• Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath) – commemorates first sermon.

Chaitya Grihas (Prayer Halls)

• Rock-cut halls with a stupa inside, used for worship and meditation
• Features: vaulted roof, apsidal plan, columns

Important Chaityas:

• Bhaja Caves (Maharashtra) – earliest example (2nd century BCE)
• Karla Caves (Maharashtra) – largest rock-cut Chaitya
• Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra) – some caves serve as Chaityas with stupas and paintings

Viharas (Monastic Residences)

• Meant for residence and study of monks
• Square or rectangular cells around a central hall
• Later included shrines and Buddha images

Examples:

• Ajanta Viharas
• Ellora (Cave 5)
• Nalanda (Bihar) – major monastic university

Buddhist Sculpture

a) Schools of Buddhist Sculpture

i) Gandhara School (1st–5th century CE)

• Region: Northwest India (modern Pakistan and Afghanistan.
• Centers: Taxila, Peshawar, Bamiyan, Swat Valley.
• Flourished under Kushana dynasty, especially Kanishka
• Greco-Roman (Hellenistic) influence
• Buddha depicted in human form for the first time (Mahayana influence)
• Drapery resembles Roman togas
• Wavy hair, sharp features, mustache sometimes visible
• Realistic anatomy, deep-set eyes, emotional expressions
• Use of halo behind the Buddha’s head
• Use of grey schist stone
• Themes:
  • Life events of Buddha: birth, enlightenment, first sermon, Mahaparinirvana
  • Jataka stories
  • Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara and Maitreya

ii) Mathura School

• Indigenous Indian style, centered around Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). Spread to Sarnath, Kaushambi, and Sankisa
• Time Period: Originated in 2nd century BCE, flourished under Kushanas, continued under Guptas
• Buddha shown with fleshy body, divine smile, halo, and ornamental motifs
• Material Used: Red spotted sandstone from nearby Sikri quarries
• Features:
  • Indigenous Indian style—less Greco-Roman influence.
  • Bold, powerful and symbolic representation of Buddha and Jain Tirthankaras
  • Buddha shown in Padmasana (lotus pose) with open eyes, broad shoulders
  • Abhayamudra (gesture of fearlessness), no realistic drapery.
  • Emphasis on spiritual energy and divine symbolism
• Themes:
  • Buddha’s life, Jataka tales, Yaksha-Yakshinis
  • Jain Tirthankaras (very prominent in early phase).
  • Iconography becomes standardized for future Indian art
• Significance:
  • Indigenous development of Buddha image
  • Transition from symbolic to fully anthropomorphic art rooted in Indian tradition.
  • Foundation of later Gupta sculptural style

iii) Amaravati School (Andhra Pradesh)

• Elegant, dynamic reliefs with narrative scenes from Buddha’s life and Jataka tales
• Use of white limestone
• Region: Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh, along the Krishna River
• Time Period: Flourished from 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE
• Supported by Satavahana rulers and Ikshvakus
• Material Used: White marble and limestone
• Features:
  • Use of narrative reliefs to depict life of Buddha and Jataka tales
  • Buddha shown in both symbolic (Hinayana) and human (Mahayana) forms
  • Figures are slim, graceful, and dynamic, often in motion
  • Rich decorative elements—floral motifs, scrolls, lotuses
• Themes:
  • Detailed stories of Buddha’s life, miracles, and sermons
• • Bodhisattvas and devotees
  • Decorative scenes from common life
• Significance:
  • Example of narrative mastery in Indian sculpture
  • Strong influence on South East Asian Buddhist art (e.g., Borobudur in Indonesia)

Comparison Table: Gandhara vs Mathura vs Amaravati

Feature	Gandhara	Mathura	Amaravati
Region	NW India (Pakistan, Afghan)	Mathura, UP	Andhra Pradesh
Time	1st BCE – 5th CE	2nd BCE – 5th CE	2nd BCE – 3rd CE
Material	Grey schist stone	Red sandstone	White marble / limestone
Foreign Influence	Strong Greco-Roman	Purely indigenous	Moderate, some Hellenistic
Depiction of Buddha	Realistic, wavy hair, toga	Abstracted divine form	Graceful, dynamic reliefs
Themes	Buddha life, Jatakas	Buddha, Jain Tirthankaras	Buddha’s life, decorative art
Key Patron	Kushanas (Kanishka)	Kushanas, Guptas	Satavahanas, Ikshvakus

Buddhist Painting

• Prominent during Gupta period and later
• Ajanta Caves: greatest surviving example (2nd century BCE to 6th century CE)
• Themes: Life of Buddha, Bodhisattvas, Jataka tales
• Use of natural pigments, fresco technique, graceful figures
• Other sites: Bagh Caves (MP), Sigiriya (Sri Lanka), Dunhuang (China)

Features of Buddhist Art

• Symbolism: lotus (purity), wheel (Dharma), lion (royalty), stupa (enlightenment)
• Humanism: focus on suffering, compassion, and ethical life
• Narrative reliefs: dynamic storytelling from Jataka and Buddha’s life
• Syncretism: blending of Indian, Persian, Hellenistic styles

Spread of Buddhist Architecture & Art (Global Influence)

• Sri Lanka: stupas (dagobas), cave temples (e.g., Dambulla)
• Tibet: Vajrayana art – mandalas, thangkas, tantric deities
• China & Japan: pagodas evolved from stupas, Buddha statues (e.g., Longmen Caves)
• Southeast Asia:
  • Borobudur (Indonesia) – world’s largest Buddhist temple
  • Ananda Temple (Myanmar) – influence of Indian architecture

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